Qualitative aspect of drug action

Qualitative aspect of drug action Qualitative aspect of drug action Schild plot Schild plot: Schild plot is defined as pharmacological method of receptor classification. By using schild plot dose-effect curve for an agonist is determined in the presence of various concentrations of a competitive antagonist for its receptor in the presence of agonist i.e. equilibrium dissociation constant is calculated. The experiment is carried out for series of dose ratios for a given effect. For example the ratio of the dose of agonist (A) to produce a specific effect (e.g.,half maximal effect) in the presence of the antagonist (B) to the dose required in the absence of the antagonist (A) is calculated. This is determined for several doses of antagonist and then log ((A/A) -1) versus the negative log B is plotted. If the regression of log ((A/A) -1) on -log B is linear with a slope of -1, then this indicates that the antagonism is competitive and by definition the agonist and antagonist act at the same recognition sites. If the slope of the regression is not -1, then by defini tion the antagonist is not competitive or some other condition is in effect. This might include multiple binding sites or pharmacokinetic interactions. Agonist: Agonist is a drug which has both affinity and efficacy. Antagonist: Antagonist is a drug which has affinity and zero efficacy. Affinity:Affinity is a property of a drug; it measures how tight a drug binds to a receptor. To bind to a receptor a functional group of the drug should bind to the complementary receptor. The binding capacity of the drug defines the action of the drug. Efficacy: Efficacy of a drug can be defined as ability of drug which activates the receptor to produce desired effect after binding. Affinity and efficacy are explained in the equation as: K+1 ÃŽ ± A + R AR* Response K-1 ÃŽ ² K+1 B + R BR No Response K-1 Where A is agonist, B is antagonist, K+1 is association rate constant for binding, K-1is dissociation rate constant for binding ÃŽ ±- Association rate constant for activation ÃŽ ²- Dissociation rate constant for activation By using law of mass action affinity is explained as B + R BR Drug free receptor drug-receptor complex At equilibrium KB = [R] [B] KB = Equilibrium dissociation constant [BR] Hill-Langmuir equation: this equation explains drug occupancy [RT] = [R] + [BR] If [RT] = Total number of receptors then by substituting this in law of mass action equation [RB] = [B] [RT] KB + [B] By this equation it is determined that drug occupancy (affinity) depends on drug concentration and equilibrium dissociation constant. Equilibrium dissosciation constant: EQUILIBRIUM DISSOCIATION CONSTANT (Kd) : It is the characteristic property of the drug and the receptors. It is defined as the concentration of the drug required to occupy 50 % of the receptors. The higher the affinity of the drug for the receptors lower is the Kd value. Mathematically Kd is k2/k1 where k2 is the rate of dissociation of the drug from the receptor and k1 is the rate of association of the drug for the receptor. Receptor (R) and Drug (D) interact in a reversible manner to form a drug-receptor (RD) complex. Where R = Receptor D = Drug (L for ligand is sometimes used in these equations) k1 = the association rate constant and has the units of M-1min-1 k2 = the dissociation rate constant and has the units of min-1. k2 is sometimes written as k-1. If an agonist binds to the receptor, then the interaction of the agonist (D) and the receptor (R) results in a conformational change in the receptor leading to a response. If an antagonist binds to the receptor, then the interaction of antagonist (D) and receptor (R) does not result in the appropriate conformation change in the receptor and a response does not occur. For drugs that follow the law of simple mass action the rate of formation of the complex can be defined by the following equation d[RD]/dt refers to the change in the concentration of [RD] with time (t). Note: the square brackets refer to concentration. This equation indicates that the rate at which the drug receptor complex (RD) is formed is proportional to the concentration of both free receptor (R) and free drug (D). The proportionality constant is k1. The rate of dissociation can be defined by the following equation -d[RD]/dt is the decrease in drug-receptor complex with time This equation indicates that the rate at which the drug-receptor complex (RD) dissociates back to free drug and free receptor is proportional to the concentration of the drug receptor complex. The proportionality constant is k2. When the drug and the receptor are initially mixed together, the amount of drug-receptor complex formed will exceed the dissociation of the drug-receptor complex. If the reaction is allowed to go for a long enough, the amount of drug-receptor complex formed per unit time will be equal to the number of dissociations of drug-receptor complex per unit of time, and the system will be at equilibrium. That is equilibrium has occurred. Equilibrium can be defined as or k1[R][D] = k2[RD] This equation can be rearranged to give Kd is the dissociation equilibrium constant. Kd has units of concentration as shown in the following equation. Simple competitive antagonism: simple competitive antagonism is the most important type of the antagonism. In this type of antagonism the antagonist will compete with available agonist for same receptor site. Sufficient antagonist will displace agonist resulting in lower frequency of receptor activation. Presence of antagonist shifts agonist log dose response curve to right. A schild plot for a competitive antagonist will have a slope equal to 1 and the X-intercept and Y-intercept will each equal thedissociation constantof the antagonist. This can be explained in equation as: Occupancy for agonist [RA] = [A] OR [A]/ KA [RT] KA+ [A] [A]/ KA +1 In presence of competitive antagonist (B) [RA] = [A]/ KA [RT] [A]/ KA + [B]/ KB + 1 Occupancy reduced according to [B] and KB To obtain same occupancy, must increase [A] to [A`] r = [A] / [A] = [B] / [B] Schild equation: r = [B] / KB +1 Where r depends on [B] and KB Applying log on both sides log (r-1) = log[B] log KB Aim: The main aim of the experiment is to measure the equilibrium dissociation constant (KB) for atropine at acetylcholine muscuranic receptors and to determine the drug receptor interactions. Objectives The main objectives of the experiment are as follows Ø To measure the equilibrium dissociation constant for atropine at acetylcholine muscuranic receptors Ø To demonstrate the reversible competitive antagonism of atropine at acetylcholine muscuranic receptors Ø To determine the equilibrium dissociation constant (KB) for atropine at acetylcholine muscuranic receptors by using schild plot. MethodIsolation and mounting of Guinea-pig ileum in organ bath Guinea-pig was first sacrificed and then the ileum was collected and transferred into physiological salt solution maintained at 370C. The food particles present in the ileum was expelled out through running Krebs solution through the lumen. Then tissue was tied with a thread at both the ends where one was tied to the mounting hook and the other was attached to the transducer. 1) Preparation of serial dilutions of drug The drugs used in the experiment were acetylcholine (Ach) and atropine. To determine the simple competitive antagonism of atropine at Ach muscuranic receptors serial dilutions of Ach were carried out. Ach was given as 110-2M and from the above concentration of the drug the following concentrations were prepared to the organ bath concentration such as 110-6M, 310-6M, 110-7M, 310-7M, 110-8M, 310-8M, 110-9M and 310-9M Ach. Then atropine was diluted to 110-8M (organ bath) from the given 110-2M concentration. 2) Determination of Organ bath concentration The volume of physiological salt solution (pss) was 20 ml, and each time the volume of drug introduced into organ bath was 20Â µl.Therefore if 20Â µl of 110-2M drug was introduced into the organ bath then it gives 110-5M organ bath concentration. Mathematical calculation of organ bath concentration: In organ bath we have 20ml of pss which is equal to 20103 Â µl of pss, if 20 Â µl of 110-2 M Ach was introduced then the organ bath concentration 20Â µl→XM 20ml→10-2M = 20 Â µl x 10-2 M 20x 103 Â µl = 110-5M (organ bath concentration). The isolated guinea- pig ileum was mounted onto the organ bath and set up for recording isometric tension of the tissue using chart software in a Mac book. Step-1 Calibration of the experimental apparatus: The chart 5 software was calibrated and the sampling rate was adjusted to 10 samples per second with a maximum input voltage to 10 mV. The baseline was set to zero and then trace was started from the baseline zero then the force transducer was calibrated by placing 1 gram weight and after the calibration the trace produced was stopped for the moment to convert the units of tension into grams by selecting the trace produced previously. Step-2 Sensitisation of preparation: To check the viability of the tissue a response of suitable height was obtained by adding a little high concentration of the drug. Here in the experiment an appreciable recording was noted at 110-7M Ach. Step-3 The time cycle followed to construct a concentration- response curve was 0 seconds to add the drug concentrations 30 seconds to empty the organ bath and refill with fresh physiological salt solution 180 seconds next drug concentration was added to the organ bath. Concentration Response Curve: By making use of the above drug concentrations a concentration response curve was constructed according to the provided time cycle. 1) 20 Â µl of 110-9M Ach was added into the organ bath at zero seconds at is allowed to stand for 30 seconds, then after 30 seconds the organ bath was emptied and refilled with pss. Pss was allowed to stand for 180 seconds. During the wash period if the peak does not return to the base then it was washed twice or thrice to make sure that all the drug dissociates from the receptors before the next addition of the other drug concentration. Each concentration was repeated twice or thrice until the two consecutive responses were reported with the same peak height. 2) By following the procedure and time cycle, the concentration response curve was constructed with different concentrations of acetyl choline such as 110-9M,310-9M, 110-8M, 310-8M, 110-7M, 310-7M, 110-6M and 310-6M Ach (organ bath concentration). Step-4 Equilibration of Acetylcholine receptors with acetylcholine After step-2 the preparation was washed several times until the peak returned to the base line. Then atropine (110-8M organ bath concentration) was added to the preparation and then set aside for 40 minutes to allow atropine to equilibrate with acetylcholine muscuranic receptors. Step-5 Concentration response curve in the presence of atropine The concentration response curve with acetylcholine was repeated again in the presence of atropine by following the time cycle and procedure, which was same as same step 2.Therefore in step 3 with each addition of acetylcholine concentration atropine was added simultaneously. Step-6 Analysis: i) The graph pad prism in the Mac book was used to plot concentration response curves in the absence and presence of atropine. Log concentration (acetylcholine) Vs response in grams ii) From the above plot EC 50 values of acetylcholine in the presence and absence of atropine were obtained. Then the distance between the two curves control and response for the atropine presence was denoted by ‘r, where ‘r was called as shift. iii) The shift was calculated mathematically as r= EC 50 of response in the presence of atropine EC 50 of Ach in the absence of atropine iv) From the value of the shift, schild plot was plotted as log concentration of atropine presence against log(r-1). v) From the schild plot the dissociation constant KB for atropine at acetylcholine muscuranic receptors was determined. Results: As explained above in the procedure serial dilutions of acetylcholine was added to the organ bath, where Ach has produced concentration dependent contractions of the guinea pig ileum as shown in the fig 1. As shown in 1 the serial dilutions of acetylcholine are added into the organ bath from 110-7M to 310-6M Ach. Here in the trace it was clearly shown that contractions produced by the acetylcholine have been increased with respect to the concentrations. In step-2 the preparation was washed and added with 110-8M atropine and set aside for 40 minutes to equilibrate the acetylcholine receptors. In the trace it is clearly shown that, the contractions produced by serial dilutions of Ach from 110-8M to 310-4M in the presence of 110-8M atropine. When Trace 1 and Trace 2 are compared it is evident that the contractions produced by Ach alone (trace 1) were greater than the contractions produced Ach in the presence of atropine (trace 2) which proves the simple competitive antagonism by atropine at muscuranic receptors. A graph is plotted to the log concentration response curve produced by Ach alone against Ach in the presence of atropine. (graph is attatched to the report) From the graph it is known that with the increase in the concentration of Ach, response have been increased when compared to Ach in the presence of atropine and also there is a shift towards right which shows the simple competitive antagonism produced by atropine. From the results produced by Ach alone against Ach in the presence of atropine the fractional difference which is called as shift can be obtained as follows Mathematical Calculation shift ‘r = EC50 of response after atropine (or) in the presence of atropine EC50 of control (or) Ach in the absence of atropine = 2.5110-6 = 8.36 3.0 x10-7 r-1 =8.36 -1=7.36 log(r-1)=log (7.36) =0.86 Partial dissociation constant (PKB) or PA2 is measured to confirm the simple competitive antagonism, where pKB values play an important role in classifying receptors. Therefore PKB =log(r-1) -log [atropine] =0.86 -log (110-8) =0.86 (-8) =0.86+ 8 =8.86 From the above results log EC50 values for control (Ach alone) and Ach in the presence of atropine were given as 3.0e-007 and 2.51e-006 respectively. This shows the molar concentration of Ach which produces 50% of the maximal possible response is higher than the molar concentration response produced by Ach in the presence of atropine. If the antagonist is competitive, the dose ratio equals one plus the ratio of the concentration of antagonist divided by its Kd for the receptor. (The dissociation constant of the antagonist is sometimes called Kb and sometimes called Kd) MathType Equation A simple rearrangement gives: MathType Equation Here we have plotted a graph with log (antagonist) on the X-axis and log (dose ratio -1) on the Y-axis. If the antagonist has shown simple competitive antagonism then the slope should be 1.0, X-intercept and Y-intercept values should be both equal the Kd of the antagonist obtained. If the agonist and antagonist are competitive, the Schild plot will have a slope of 1.0 and the X intercept will equal the logarithm of the Kd of the antagonist. If the X-axis of a Schild plot is plotted as log(molar), then minus one times the intercept is called the pA2 (p for logarithm, like pH; A for antagonist; 2 for the dose ratio when the concentration of antagonist equals the pA2). The pA2 (derived from functional experiments) will equal the Kd from binding experiments if antagonist and agonist compete for binding to a single class of receptor sites. From 5 and 6 it is evident that no concentrations of atropine have showed competitive antagonism perfectly. Therefore from the above results it is known that the concentrations of atropine has not shown simple competitive antagonism fairly. Discussion: Reversible competitive antagonism: The binding of drug to a receptor is fully reversible which produces a parallel shift of the dose response curve to the right in the presence of an antagonist. The mechanism of action of acetylcholine at muscuranic receptors: In various gastrointestinal smooth muscles, acetylcholine and its derivatives produce contractions by activating muscuranic receptors. It is generally assumed that the M3 muscuranic receptor plays a key role in mediating this activity. The M3 receptor is coupled preferentially to Gq-type G proteins, resulting in the activation of phospholipase C (PLC) and the formation of ionositiol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG) which are likely to participate in muscuranic receptor-mediated smooth muscle contractions. IP3 causes Ca2+ release from intracellular store and can also mobilize Ca2+ secondarily through Ca2+-sensitive or store-dependent mechanisms. DAG, via activation of protein kinase C, phosphorylates various proteins and can directly activate non selective cationic channels. From the above results the value of shift obtained was 0.378 which denotes the simple competitive antagonism produced by the concentration of atropine used (110-8 M).From the value of shift the pKB value was calculated as 8.4.If atropine has shown simple competitive antagonism then the value of pKB should be equal to 1-X intercept. Therefore pKB=1-X intercept =1-(-8.86) =9.86 We got value of pKB as 8.86.Therefore pKB is not equal to 1-X intercept. Therefore the concentration of atropine (110-8M organ bath concentration) used by our group has not shown simple competitive antagonism effectively. The literature value of pKB is given as approximately 9 and we have obtained the value of pKB as 8.86 which does not fit with literature value. Therefore from the above observations and results i can conclude that a little more high concentration of atropine may serve to produce complete simple competitive antagonism by atropine at acetylcholine muscuranic receptors.

Sir Elton John

Sir Elton John was a pop singer in the 19 and 20 century. Elton was inducted in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in the year 1994. Elton was one of the biggest artist of that time. Elton has lots and lots of fans and makes over millions of dollars. This is Elton life from a child to an adult! Elton John had an ok childhood. Elton John was born on March 25 1947 in Pinner, United Kingdom. Elton John had 4 brothers named Geoff, Simon, Sam and Robert. Elton John's father, Stanley Dwight was in the royal air force. Elton did not have a good relationship with Stanley. Elton John not only loved music at a young age, he loved to play sports. One surprising fact about Elton John was that he taught himself how to play the piano at age 3! When Elton John was only 17 he dropped out of High School to start his dream of music. According to CNN, Elton John was married to Renate Blauel in 1984. But CNN states that Elton got into a divorce with Renate in 1988. Elton John went on Instagram and said that he was a bad husband to Renute and caused her into sadness, which made them have a divorce. Years later Elton ended up marrying David Furnish to be his long time partner. They have been married to David since 2014 to now. Elton John has too kids with David. Elton John has two kids named Zachary and Elijah! Zachary is Eltons older son that is about 8 years old as of 2018. Zachary was born in 2010 on christmas day! A surprising fact about Zachary is that his godmother is Lady Gaga! In a interview Elton said â€Å"He's gorgeous, he travels brilliantly, he so loves people, and it makes our lives – he's the icing on the cake†. Elton and David say they love the biological mother of Zachary like a sister. Elijah is Elton and David's youngest son. As of 2018 Elijah is about 5 years old. Elijah was born on January 11, 2013. At Elijah's birth he weighed 8lb 4oz. From interviews you can tell that Elton and David really loves there kids and would do anything for them. Elton John's has many songs that made him famous. Some of his songs that got him very famous are Rocket Man, Crocodile Rock and Goodbye Yellow Brick Road! Those are just a few of Elton John's hits singles. Elton John is also famous for his debut album Yellow Brick Road of 1969-1973. This album has helped make Elton John very famous and put him where he is today. Elton John makes about 500 millions dollars! Listen to this song by Elton called Rocket Man. (played from the slides) Elton John's is getting into his oldern days now. Elton john is 71 years old and is retiring from music very soon. Elton John is going on his very last tour soon. He will be calling it the † Farewell Yellow Brick Road tour†. From the title of the tour he may be performing songs from his album Yellow Brick Road! Rumors say that Elton wants to take a break from music and move on to his other passion, sports! As you can see Elton John is a very successful man. He is very lucky to get inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Even with an ok childhood, he is able to still have the passion for sports and music. Elton is a 71 year old man that is very successful that will go on the rest of his life not being worried about anything.

Analysis Of Mary Shelley s Frankenstein - 1589 Words

Extended Response (Q2) - Frankenstein By Mary Shelley Rachel .Corrie The perspective, from which a story is told, causes an influential response from readers to certain issues, characters and conflicts that are found in literary texts. Mary Shelley’s gothic novel, Frankenstein, was published in 1818 and tells the story of a scientist known as Victor Frankenstein who reanimates life in an unethical science experiment. In this novel Walton, Victor and the creature tell their side of the story, through which Mary Shelley uses the effect of a frame narrative so that it provides readers with extensive information about characters such as their intentions, emotions, and thoughts, which allows for each reader to create a unique and individual response to the novel. Robert Walton is an indirect narrator of the story, he tells Victor Frankenstein s story through letters to his sister, Margaret Saville. Through the letters, Walton is able to tell Frankenstein’s story about his creation, although the letters are written from Walton about Frankenstein it shows the personal connection between the two characters. When Walton first meets Frankenstein, readers can see why he wants to share the legacy of Frankenstein as he describes him to be gentle wise, intelligent, and that Walton is â€Å"happy to have possessed as the brother of his heart†. By placing these letters, in the beginning of the story, it becomes intriguing and exciting for readers as they explore the storyShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Mary Shelley s Frankenstein1411 Words   |  6 PagesIn the early 1800s Mary Shelley set pen to a paper and started to develop a novel that little to her knowledge would become world renowned. In 1818 she finished and published the novel to sel l to the European public. The novel caught the world off guard in the way that a female was able to write about such harsh, dark, and evil things in a European society whose authors like John Locke and Charles Montesquieu preached enlightenment, self exploration, and individualism all in an optimistic enablingRead MoreAnalysis Of Mary Shelley s Frankenstein1615 Words   |  7 Pagesa whole and how accurate a depiction they might think it to be, they will miss out on many of the qualities of the painting that reside below the immediately apparent surface level. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is a text dedicated to expounding upon the dangers of such superficial analysis. In Frankenstein, Mary Shelley openly condemns the surface level and appearance oriented methodology under which the human mind operates. The very protagonist of the novel is inspired solely by reputation and howRead MoreAnalysis Of Mary Shelley s Frankenstein 1758 Words   |  8 PagesFrankenstein was published over 200 years ago. Ever since it was published, it has been one of the most famous books known to literature. History.com Staff states that this book, by 21-year-old Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, is frequently called the world’s first science fiction novel (History.com Staff). According to Wikipedia, Shelley was an English novelist. She was born August 30th, 1797. She died on February 1st, 1951 (Wikipedia). Shelley came up with the idea of Frankenstein as she andRead MoreBiblical Analysis Of Mary Shelley s Frankenstein 1376 Words   |  6 PagesLiterature 16 November 2015 Biblical Analysis: Frankenstein Frankenstein by Mary Shelley often refers to the bible on a number of occasions. However, it is worth noting that many references used by Mary Shelley in Frankenstein can often be identified in Genesis. Much like Genesis, the story of Frankenstein is a viable creation story. The book of Genesis first explains the creation of man and woman, and also recounts the fall of humanity. 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The Unnecessary Destruction of Hiroshima - 598 Words

On August 6th, 1945, at 8:15 Japan time, the United States dropped an atomic bomb named â€Å"Little Boy† on Hiroshima, Japan. Little Boy was dropped from the Enola Gay, from 31,000ft and detonated at 1,900ft above Hiroshima. Dropping the atomic bomb destroyed the city, ruined and negatively changed people’s lives, and killed thousands of people. Some say it was necessary to drop it because of the lives it saved. It didn’t save lives. It was unnecessary to drop the atomic bomb because of the amount of destruction and lives it ruined. The atomic bomb caused a lot of unnecessary destruction when it was dropped on Hiroshima. It had destroyed houses and work buildings in Hiroshima, such as the hospital in which Dr. Fujii lived and worked. Dr. Fujii’s hospital was smashed â€Å"all around him in a mad assortment of splintered lumber and materials for the relief of pain† (John Hersey, 11). Buildings were blown apart, caught fire, and completely obliterated. Two-thirds of Hiroshima were demolished. Out of the 90,000 buildings in Hiroshima, 60,000 buildings were destroyed within a three mile radius of the epicenter. The havoc could have been avoided by not dropping the atomic bomb. Many people had their lives unfairly changed and even ruined from the atomic bomb. The victims of radiation poisoning and burns had to deal with disfiguring ailments. They had dark burns across their bodies. Their hair burned off. Skin drooped from the radiation and blast. The bomb also irradiated the people nearbyShow MoreRelatedThe Atomic Bomb Of Hiroshima And Nagasaki1364 Words   |  6 PagesJapanese city, Hiroshima. Three days later on the 9th of August America dropped another bombed called, ‘Fat Man’ on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. A surrender was received and accepted by America on the 15th of August and the war against Japan had ended. Harry S. Truman, the man responsible for dropping the bombs claims it ended the war more efficiently and was in fact the best option but many suspicions arose as news from Japan came to light and the utter destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki wasRead More Drop The Bomb? Essay656 Words   |  3 Pages U.S. History - Grech Atomic Bombs Dropped on Japan, Justified? nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;On August 6th and 9th of 1945 U.S. bombers dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, causing utter destruction and many deaths. These bombs were dropped as the Pacific battles of World War II were coming to an end. Soon after Japan surrendered, ending the war. But, was the use of atomic warfare necessary? Was it too harsh and cruel to the JapaneseRead MoreUnited States Should Not Drop The Nuclear Bombs On Japan.1369 Words   |  6 Pagesweapons on the Japanese cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively. Those two bombs brought severe damages to these two cities including over 200,000 innocent lives. Many people believe that Japan deserve to be bombed due to many reasons, primarily because Japan first attacked United States at Pearl Harbor. However, it is still wrong and unnecessary for United States to drop two bombs respectively on Hiroshima and Nagasaki as the two bombs not only bring destructions to Japan, but also cause furtherRead MoreThe Atomic Bombing Of Hiroshima871 Words   |  4 PagesAn Unnecessary Action The atomic bombing of Japan was an unjustified decision that many considered was inhumane. Through the use of atomic bombs, many innocents were harmed in one way or another. Berger described the atomic bombing of Hiroshima as a terrorist act and that it was evil. While Berger s argument was extreme, the U.S. still remains unjustified because they did not know exactly how much damage the bomb would actually cause. Bombing Japan, the U.S. harmed thousands of civiliansRead MoreHarry Trumans Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb1314 Words   |  6 Pagesbombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki justified? A. Plan of Investigation Research Question: To what extent was Harry Truman’s decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki justified? This investigation assesses President Harry Truman’s decision to drop atomic bombs on both Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It will determine whether or not his decision was justified. This investigation will scrutinize the reasons that made Harry Truman feel inclined to drop atomic bombs over Hiroshima and NagasakiRead MoreThe Tragedy Of Hiroshima And Nagasaki1422 Words   |  6 PagesPapas 1 Hiroshima â€Å"For those who were there and who survived to recall the moment when man first turned on himself the elemental forces of his own universe, the first instant was pure light; blinding intense heat ... if there was a sound no one heard it. The initial flash spawned a succession of calamities. First came the heat. It lasted only an instant but was so intense that it melted roof tiles, fused the quartz crystals in granite blocks ... and incinerated humans so thoroughly that nothingRead MoreAtomic Bombs On Hiroshima And Nagasaki844 Words   |  4 PagesDuring World War II Americans dropped atomic bombs over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki killing nearly 200,000 people. This resulted in Japans surrender in World War II. J. Samuel Walker analyzes this historical event in his book Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs. Over the past 70 years’ extensive research has been conducted and there is an understanding that Truman’s decision to drop the atomic bombs is inconclusive. It is impossible to determine thatRead MoreDropping The Bombs On Hiroshima And Nagasaki1073 Words   |  5 PagesIn an attempt to frighten the Communist Soviet Russia, two unnecessary bombs were dropped on Japan. 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Irony in Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown Essay examples

Irony in â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† Nathaniel Hawthorne’s tale â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† is replete, is saturated, with irony. This essay will amply illustrate the validity of this statement. At the outset of the story a young Puritan husband departs at sunset from his young Puritan wife, â€Å"And Faith, as the wife was aptly named, thrust her own pretty head into the street, letting the wind play with the pink ribbons of her cap, while she called to Goodman Brown.† The author says that Faith is â€Å"aptly named,† an ironic statement since she, later in the evening, is being received into the assembly of devil-worshippers as a new convert to the evil group. Not only is her name ironic, but also the description of her as â€Å"pretty,† and as†¦show more content†¦That he should criticize Faith in the very next sentence for doubting his intentions is, of course, ironic since his intentions are thoroughly reprehensible. Though she is a beginning devil-worshipper, Faith’s response to her husband uses the very language of a Puritan minister: Then God bless you! said Faith, with the pink ribbons, and may you find all well, when you come back. Quite ironic. Likewise Goodman’s response to Faith is that of a devout Puritan sitting in the front row at church on Sunday morning: Amen! cried Goodman Brown. Say thy prayers, dear Faith, and go to bed at dusk, and no harm will come to thee. And his intentions are quite as evil as hers. As Goodman turns the corner at the meeting-house, his remorseful thoughts exalt the goodness of his wife: What a wretch am I, to leave her on such an errand! She talks of dreams, too. Methought, as she spoke, there was trouble in her face, as if a dream had warned her what work is to be done tonight. But, no, no! twould kill her to think it. Well; shes a blessed angel on earth; and after this one night, Ill cling to her skirts and follow her to Heaven. 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National Livestock Development Policy Free Essays

string(94) " key policy issues for each of these critical areas are outlined in the following section: 4\." NATIONAL LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT POLICY 1. Introduction Livestock plays an important role in the national economy of Bangladesh with a direct contribution of 2. 95% percent to the agricultural GDP (Bangladesh Economic Review, 2006) and providing 15 percent of total employment in the economy. We will write a custom essay sample on National Livestock Development Policy or any similar topic only for you Order Now The livestock sub-sector that includes poultry offers important employment and livelihood opportunities particularly for the rural poor, including the functionally landless, many of whom regard livestock as a main livelihood option. About 75 percent people rely on livestock to some extent for their livelihood, which clearly indicates that the poverty reduction potential of the livestock sub-sector is high. According to Bangladesh Economic Review, (2006), the growth rate in GDP in 2004-05 for livestock was the highest of any sub-sector at 7. 23%, compared to 0. 15% for crops, and 3. 65% for fisheries sub-sector. These changes have been prompted by a rapid growth in demand for livestock products due to increase in income, rising population, and urban growth. It is an established fact that high quality animal protein in the form of milk, meat and eggs is extremely important for the proper physical and mental growth of a human being. In Bangladesh, around 8% of total protein for human consumption comes from livestock (BBS, 2000). Hides and skin of cattle, buffaloes, goats and sheep is a valuable export item, ranked third in earnings after RMG and shrimp. Surprisingly, Bangladesh has one of the highest cattle densities: 145 large ruminants/km2 compared with 90 for India, 30 for Ethiopia, and 20 for Brazil. But most of them trace their origin to a poor genetic base. The average weight of local cattle ranges from 125 to 150 kg for cows and from 200 to 250 kg for bulls that falls 25-35% short of the average weight of all-purpose cattle in India (â€Å"Agriculture for 21st Century in Bangladesh† by Z. Karim, 1997). Milk yields are extremely low: 200-250 litre during a 10-month lactation period in contrast to 800 litre for Pakistan, 500 litre for India, and 700 litre for all Asia. Despite highest cattle densities in Bangladesh, the current production of milk, meat and eggs are inadequate to meet the current requirement and the deficits are 85. , 77. 4 and 73. 1% respectively (DLS, 2000). If 5% GDP growth rate is considered then the current production of these commodities need to be increased 2. 5 to 3. 0 times by the year 2020 to feed the growing population in the country. This illustrates how urgent is the need to increase the production of milk, meat and eggs. The PRSP (Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper) stresses the importance of the livest ock sub-sector in sustaining the acceleration of poverty reduction in the country. The dynamic potential of this emerging sub-sector thus requires critical policy attention. In the past, due importance was not given to the development of the livestock sub-sector despite its significant contribution to the national economy. In the Financial Year 2006-07 the livestock sub-sector received only about 1. 0 percent of the total budget allocation, or only about 3. 5 percent of the agricultural sector budget. Though production of animal protein has maintained an upward trend, daily per capita availability of animal protein presently stands at around 21 gm meat, 43 ml milk and 41 eggs vis-a-vis the recommended intakes of 120 gm meat, 250 ml milk and 104 eggs. Shortage of quality inputs, inadequate services and physical infrastructure, institutional weaknesses in terms of weak regulatory framework and enforcement, limited skilled manpower and resources, and inadequate research and technological advancement are all continuing to act as constraints to livestock development. The growth opportunities in the livestock sub-sector vary significantly among the species. Qualitative rather than quantitative development of large ruminants (cattle and buffalo), a parallel increase of the productivity and population size of the small ruminants (goat and sheep), and poultry keeping emerges as promising to offer substantial growth potentials with a positive impact on nutrition, employment and poverty alleviation. Research and technological development merit priority to counteract allied problems in the fields of feed, breed and disease and meet the challenge of the country’s livestock sector in the 21st century National Livestock Development Policy has been prepared to address the key hallenges and opportunity for a comprehensive sustainable development of the Livestock sub-sector through creating an enabling policy framework. 2. Objectives of the National Livestock Development Policy The general objective of the National Livestock Development Policy: To provide the enabling environment, opening up opportunities, and reducing risks and vulnerabilit y for harnessing the full potential of livestock sub-sector to accelerate economic growth for reduction of rural poverty in which the private sector will remain the main actor, while the public sector will playa facilitating and supportive role. The specific objectives of the National Livestock Development Policy: 1. To promote sustainable improvements in productivity of milk, meat and egg production including processing and value addition; 2. To promote sustained improvements in income, nutrition, and employment for the landless, small and marginal farmers; and 3. To facilitate increased private sector participation and investments in livestock production, livestock services, market development and export of livestock products and by-products. 3. Legal Status of the National Livestock Development Policy All the government and autonomous organizations, multi-national institutions, NGOs, CBOs (community based organizations), and persons who are working within the geographical territory of Bangladesh for the management, development and conservation of Livestock resources, import-export or other business related to the livestock sub-sector will be under the preview of National livestock Development Policy. 4. Scope of the National Livestock Development Policy The following ten critical areas have been identified for formulating the National livestock Development policy: i. Dairy Development and Meat Production: ii. Poultry Development; iii. Veterinary Services and Animal Health; iv. Feeds and Animal Management; v. Breeds Development; vi. Hides and Skins; vii. Marketing of Livestock Products; viii. International Trade Management ix. Access to Credit and Insurance; and x. Institutional Development for Research and Extension The key policy issues for each of these critical areas are outlined in the following section: 4. You read "National Livestock Development Policy" in category "Essay examples" 1Dairy Development and Meat Production Dairy Development The opportunity for development of large-scale dairy is limited in Bangladesh due to scarcity of land. However, the potential for development of smallholder dairy is high. Over the last few years, small-scale dairy farming has increased significantly with the support of credit, feed, veterinary services and provision of self-insurance systems. Small-scale dairy farming provides employment for the poorer segments of the population. The availability of this form of traditional self-employment to rural dwellers, not least women, is important where there is scarcity of alternative income generating opportunities. Smallholder dairy thus widens the scope for the poor with limited access to land to enhance their income. Dairy animals can playa crucial role in household food security, through improved income and nutritional of the low-income groups. Daily farming in Bangladesh is affected by myriads of constraints such as: (i) limited knowledge and technical skills of smallholder dairy farmers; (ii) scarcity of feeds and fodder; (iii) poor quality of feeds; (iv) frequent occurrence of diseases; (v) limited coverage of veterinary services including poor diagnostic facilities; (vi) lack of credit support; (vii) limited milk collection and processing facilities and low prices at collection points; (viii) lack of insurance coverage; (ix) absence of market nformation; (x) lack of appropriate breeds; and (xi) absence of a regulatory body. Policy framework for dairy development is: 1. Cooperative dairy development (Milk Vita model) would be expanded in potential areas allover the country; 2. Successful pro-poor models for community-based smallholder dairy development including appropriate contact farming sc hemes would be replicated; 3. Smallholder dairy farming, integrated with crop and fish culture would be promoted; 4. Supply chain based production, processing and marketing of milk and milk products would be promoted; . A National Dairy Development Board would be established as a regulatory body to promote dairy development; 6. â€Å"National Dairy Research Institute† would be established to carryout research in various aspects of dairying. Meat Production Around 3. 5 million cattle are slaughtered annually in the country of which 40 percent are imported through cross-border trade. Around 15 million goats are slaughtered annually mostly of local origin. Of the total slaughter of cattle and goats, around 40 percent is performed during Eid-ul-Azha. Increased demand for quality meat, beef fattening has become an important income generating activity for small fanners, and a potentially important tool for reducing poverty. Beef fattening is considered to have high income generating potential, but faces constraints such as lack of appropriate breeds, knowledge gaps of farmers, lack of proper veterinary services and quality feeds. Most meat is handled under unsatisfactory sanitary conditions in both rural and urban areas. Enforcement of legislation relating to slaughtering or meat inspection is weak. There is generally poor pre-slaughter conditions, sanitation, removal of waste materials, and disposal of offal. The Black Bengal goat is a highly prolific local breed, resistant to many diseases and can be easily raised under most environments on low quality feed and with little investments. Rearing of Black Bengal goat is an appropriate option for many subsistence farmers. Its demand is growing in both domestic meat markets and internationally for its skins and high quality leather goods. Policy framework for meat production: 1. Animal Slaughter Act, Animal Feed Act and Animal Disease Act would be approved and enforced in order to promote hygienic production of quality meat; 2. Butchers would be trained on scientific methods of slaughtering, meat processing and preservation techniques; 3. Development of beef breeds for increased productivity at farm level; 4. Development of backward and forward linkage system to help improvement of existing cattle fattening system into private enterprises; 5. Private sector would be encouraged to establish mechanized slaughter houses with Static Flaying Frame in Divisional cities; and Local Government would be encouraged to establish slaughter slabs in municipality and Upazila headquarters; 6. Production of Black Bengal Goats would be promoted by ensuring disease prevention, availability of quality bucks and semen for artificial insemination, and knowledge transfer through special projects; 7. Buffalo and sheep farming would be developed in selected high potential areas through special projects. 4. Poultry Development The backyard poultry units require minimum inputs and are often part of integrated crop- aquaculture-livestock farming systems. Their level of production is relatively low but profitability can be high due to low inputs costs and recycling of on-farm by-products. Commercial production systems use birds of improved genetic stock and reared under semi- intensive or intensive management. There are currently an estimated 120,000 commercial poultry farms in Bangladesh, supported by 04 Grand Parent Farms and 69 Parent Stock Farms. While the growth of the poultry industry has contributed to economic growth and income of commercial farmers, indiscriminate and unplanned growth of breeder farms and commercial poultry farms, particularly in and around cities and towns is creating environmental hazards. There are at present no guidelines for environmental protection and bio-security when establishing poultry farms. The use of antibiotics in feeds is thought to be common and a cause of public health concern. The constraints facing the sector in general include: (i) lack of infrastructure beyond the Upazila Head Quarters for providing services to poultry farmers; (ii) shortage of skilled manpower; (iii) shortage of quality chicks and breeding materials; (iv) shortage of poultry , feed/feed ingredients and high prices; (v) poor quality of inputs; (vi) lack of quality control facilities for medicine, vaccines and biological products, feed and feed ingredients, chicks, eggs and birds; (vii) drug and vaccine residues in poultry meat; (viii) shortage of vaccines; (ix) lack of organized marketing systems; (x) poor provision of veterinary services; and (xi) insufficient credit and capital especially for the poor. The possible threat of Avian Influenza exacerbates some of these concerns and shortcomings and would require additional measures to be taken. Policy framework or Poultry Development: 1. Successful pro-poor models would be replicated for semi-scavenging poultry development; 2. Formation of poultry smallholder groups, CBOs, and producers associations would be facilitated; 3. Quality control of poultry feeds and feed ingredients would be ensured through establishment of a legal body and enforcement of regulations; 4. Production and consumption of safe (antibiotic residue free) including organic meat and eggs would be promoted; 5. Criteria and guidelines would be established to ensure supply of quality day-old chicks; 6. Specific guidelines would be developed and enforced for establishing environment-friendly commercial poultry farms; Small commercial farms would be converted into profit oriented large farms following cooperative system. 7. Poultry farms of the DLS would be utilized as breeding and multiplication farms / centres for smallholder training, technology testing and demonstration etc 8. Smallholder production and marketing of ducks and minor poultry species (e. g. Quail, Goose, Pigeon, Guinea fowl) in selected areas would be promoted; 9. National Reference Laboratory for detection of Avian Influenza virus and other emerging diseases would be established; and 10. National Avian Flu Preparedness Plan would be implemented. 4. 3Veterinary Services and Animal Health Inadequate veterinary services are one of the major obstacles for livestock development in Bangladesh. The ratio of Veterinary Surgeons to farm animals and birds was estimated at I: 1. 7 million in 1995, and according to a 2003 estimate only 5-10 percent of farm animals receive routine vaccination. Private sector investment in the animal health sector remains low and is only expanding slowly. The quality and quantity of vaccines produced and delivered by the DLS are inadequate. The use of subsidies in vaccine production in present form is a possible deterrent to private investors. There is no. Independent authority to check the quality of domestically produced or imported vaccines. Vaccination is done in a haphazard manner without any strategic plan for controlling the targeted diseases. There are no provisions for movement control and quarantine during disease outbreak or epidemics. No registration is required for feed additives such as toxins binder, antibiotics, and vitamin- mineral premixes, animal protein, many of which are potentially detrimental to human health. Most of the drugs traders and shop keepers have no formal training on drug handling, transportation, storing and dispensing, and readily sell drugs such as antibiotics, hormones, and sedatives across the counter without prescription. Disease diagnostic facilities are limited. The DVH (District Veterinary Hospitals), Regional FDIL (Field Diseases Investigation Laboratories), and the CDIL (Central Disease Investigation Laboratory of DLS are responsible for providing diagnostic services. However, due to shortage of skilled manpower and non-availability of funds they cannot provide the intended services. There IS no provision for residue analysis of drugs, heavy metals, hormones, pesticides and toxins in foods of animal origin. There are only few local veterinarians trained in clinical pathology to diagnose diseases properly. The disease surveillance system is almost non-existent. ‘The Veterinary Public Health Unit in the DLS has the mandate to perform diagnosis, surveillance and control of zoonotic diseases, ensure food safety of animal origin, and liaison with the Health Department. The Unit is however, suffering from serious shortages of human capital, funding and laboratory facilities. It has no legal framework to implement its mandate. Coordination between animal and human health bodies is virtually non-existent. Veterinary research is similarly constrained due to shortages of staff and funds. Very limited fund is available for veterinary research. There are important areas of public goods services like veterinary epidemiology, veterinary public health, food safety and diagnostic techniques within which research needs to be expanded urgently. The Animal Quarantine Act was recently passed by the Parliament, but quarantine stations, manpower and funds to enforce the Act are not in place yet. Laws and Regulations are essential for high quality service delivery and quality assurance of products for trade. Some laws and regulations are in place but overall regulatory framework and implementation remain very weak. Policy framework for Veterinary Services and Animal Health: 1. Soft loans would be provided to accelerate the development of private veterinary services; 2. Community-based veterinary service would be developed through special projects; 3. An autonomous Quality Control Agency would be established to ensure quality of veterinary drugs, vaccines, feeds, feed ingredients and breeding tools and materials; 4. A licensing system for veterinary pharmacists and a quality monitoring system of veterinary services would be introduced; 5. Veterinary research would be strengthened in critical areas, particularly those related to provision of public goods and services; 6. Veterinary public health services would be strengthened and closer linkages with the Department of Health would be established; 7. Capacities of disease investigation network of DLS would be strengthened for disease surveillance, quarantine services and emergency planning to manage major disease outbreaks including Avian Influenza and other emerging diseases; 8. Specific strategy would be developed for controlling economically important trans-boundary animal diseases; 9. Veterinary Council would be strengthened to help ensure quality veterinary services; 10. â€Å"National Livestock Health Disaster Committee† would be formed including all trade organizations to combat such crisis; 11. A separate â€Å"Veterinary Cell† would be established in Department of Drug Administration for facilitating decision making on veterinary drug registration and approval in Bangladesh. Animal Health Companies Association and related trade association would be included in the committee to represent the private sector. 12. Promote and encourage private sector to set-up compliant veterinary diagnostic center, clinics and hospitals to cater the needs of the farmers and other beneficiaries. 4. 4Feeds and Animal Management The acute shol1age of feeds and fodder is one of the single most impOJ1ant obstacles to livestock development in Bangladesh. The main constraints for feeds and feed management include: (i) shortage of feeds and fodder; (ii) scarcity of land for fodder production; (iii) seasonal fluctuations of feeds and fodder; (iv) low quality feed; (v) high feed prices; and (vi) poor husbandry practices. Feed resources for large livestock are primarily derived from crop residues and cereal by- products as well as grasses, tree leaves and aquatic plants. Very little grain is available for animals. Feed concentrates contribute only a small portion of the feed. Feed resources for scavenging rural poultry comprise scattered grains from threshing floors, left over grains, pulses, broken rice, kitchen wastes, green grasses, insects, worms, left over boiled rice, etc. Because of increasing demand for human food land is intensively used for cereal production. Neither sufficient grazing land, nor spare land is available for growing fodder. This has resulted in shortages of quality forage for ruminant livestock, causing stunted growth, reproduction problems, reduced lactation, working inability, lower growth rates, and reduced productivity. Most of the dairy and poultry farmers are facing the problem of adulterated and inferior quality of commercial feeds and feed ingredients. Feed labeling and control is inadequate. Most feed millers do not disclose the necessary information on the packaging with regards to feed composition, ingredients, date of manufacturing, date of expiry, storage guidelines, energy levels, and protein and vitamin contents. Feed millers are widely suspected of minimizing feed production costs either by use of inferior quality ingredients and/or inclusion of lower proportions of high value ingredients. Poor packaging materials contribute to reduced quality and shelf life. Policy framework for Feeds and Animal Management: 1. Feed and fodder development strategy would be developed for community- based fodder cultivation along roads and highways, rivers and embankments, in Khas lands, and in combinations with crops; 2. Necessary support would be provided to the private sector for utilization and promotion of crop residues, agro-industrial by-products and unconventional feed resources as animal feed; 3. An Animal Feed Act would be approved and implemented to ensure feed quality; and 4. Resources would be provided for training of dairy farmers on improved animal management and husbandry practices. 5. Organizational support system development for coordination of support services for smallholder dairy development in private sector; . Private sector support system development for strengthening manufacturing and marketing of feed and feed additives; 7. Human resource development. 4. 5Breeds Development Livestock development through the application of science-led methods of breeds and breeding in Bangladesh is st ill at a rudimentary stage. There is however enthusiasm for applying breeds and breeding interventions to enhance livestock performance. Lack of a national breeding policy, use of inappropriate breeds, weak infrastructure (human capacity, national service delivery, breeding farms), and limited technical knowledge has constrained the development of improved breeds. Available high yielding seed materials (in cattle and chicken industry) are mostly exotic and imported. However, not all of these imported exotic species adapt well under Bangladesh climatic conditions. There are a number of promising well-adapted native livestock breeds in the country (e. g. Red Chittagong cattle, Black Bengal goat, Bengal sheep, Naked Neck chicken etc), which could be developed into high yielding breeds through cross breeding in a systematic manner. Importation of inappropriate genetic material coupled with indiscriminate crossbreeding and a clear neglect of indigenous breeds has created a situation, where a number of native breeds of livestock are under threat of extinction. Unplanned and sporadic attempts that were made for breed improvement of various species failed, because the initiatives were not based on thorough breed/ genotype testing results and not based on well-thought out and sound breeding goals, breeding criteria, animal recording systems, animal evaluation procedures, and animal selection and mating plans. Breeds and breeding program inherently requires heavy initial investments and regular and timely flow of resources. Sustained funding support for breeding work has not been forthcoming. As a result, the limited expertise available in this field remains underutilized. There is no regulatory body or national Breeding Act to regulate breed imports, prices of breeding materials, merits and quality of breeds, breeding materials and breeding services. Within the existing cattle breeding services (including artificial insemination), farmers have little or no idea of the merit and quality of the semen being provided for insemination. The same is true for other species such as goats and buffaloes, and applies also to imported germplasm (live animals, semen, embryos, etc). Policy framework for Breeds Development: 1. A National Breeding Program would be finalized and approved; 2. Conservation and utilization program of potential indigenous breeds for poor smallholders in the pertinent locality would be developed; 3. A comprehensive human resource development program in animal breeding would be developed; 4. Frozen semen production unit would be established for wide scale artificial insemination of Black Bengal Goats to face the challenge of service storage of proven buck throughout the country; 5. Breeders Association’ would be established for monitoring and coordination of livestock breeding activities in the country. 4. 6Hides and Skins Leather including crust as well as finished leather and leather goods is an important export earner contributing about 6 to 7 percent of total export earnings. A large propo rtion of leather materials are however downgraded and rejected due to poor quality. Leather defects are reported to be responsible for a more than 50 percent cut in the value of leather. Cattle and goats are the major skin and hide producing species followed by buffalo and sheep. Most slaughtering takes place with inadequate facilities for electricity, water, and sewerage. There are an estimated 192 improvised slaughter houses at district level, 1215 at Upazila level and more than 3,000 slaughtering points in hats and bazaars as well as by road sides of cities and towns. Hides are in most cases removed by unskilled persons using inappropriate tools, giving rise to irregular shapes and flay cuts. Defects in goat and sheep skins have been significantly reduced in recent years with the introduction of hang and pull systems of flaying. Besides hides and skins, the slaughtering of animals generates potentially valuable by- products including blood, bones, hoofs, rumen and visceral contents, hairs, etc. Only a part of certain by-products, generated mainly in organized slaughter houses, are collected and processed by cottage level factories. Most of these by-products are discarded and thrown away, resulting in large economic losses and environmental pollution. Tannery operations are further impacting negatively on the environment. Financing is a major problem, particularly the primary market intermediaries like farias and beparis suffer due to lack of adequate working capital and inadequate access to finance. The shortage of capital reduces the purchasing capacity of intermediaries and consequently, a large quantity of hides and skins are pilfered in the neighbouring country, especially during Eid-ul-Azha. Ful1hennore, prices drop during Eid-ul-Azha, when large quantities of hides and skins are produced. The low prices in turn provide little incentive for proper flaying, handling and preservation. Policy framework for Hides and Skins: 1. Butchers and merchants (Farias, Beparis and Aratdars) would be trained on basic knowledge of flaying, curing and storing for improved management and quality of hides and skins; 2. An autonomous agency would be established for quality control and cet1ification of hides and skins; 3. Environmental legislation on slaughter and tannery operations would be framed and enforced; 4. Private sector would be encouraged to establish small to medium scale industries to utilize slaughter and tannery by-products for producing high quality feed supplement for animal feeds; and 5. Access to micro-finance and banking facilities would be improved for intermediaries. 4. 7Marketing of Livestock Products Milk: There is no systematic marketing network and market information system for milk and milk products to support smallholder dairy farmers in the rural areas. Farmers sell milk either in the local market or to goal as (traditional milk collectors) who continue to render useful services to the rural community, and sometimes work as supplying agents to private firms. Commercial marketing of milk started in the late 1970s by Milk Vita. Milk Vita has established milk-processing plants in various places and collects milk from its cooperatives members. BRAC, Pran and CLDDP (Community Livestock and Dairy Development Project) have also recently installed milk processing, and a small number of other private farms are dealing with pasteurized milk. These enterprises however, only cover a part of the country. Most small-scale dairy farmers in rural areas sell their milk in local markets at around a third to half of the price at which milk is sold in the cities. Low prices and price fluctuations are found to be important constraints to increased production and higher income of milk producers. Milk production costs are largely determined by feed prices (wheat and rice bran), which are increasing, in some cases rapidly. Meat: There is a high demand for meat in the local markets. In the past, the beef price was relatively low due the ready supply of cattle from neighbouring country. The supply has recently been restricted and as a result meat prices have increased sharply. Constraints to long-term development of the beef industry include lack of improved breeds, low meat quality, and limited access to credit and insurance amongst smallholders. Eggs: The egg marketing system can be characterized as oligopolistic, under control of the Aratdars who extend credit to the poultry farmers who in turn are obliged to sell through the Aratdars for loan repayment. The price of eggs in large city markets is usually not known to the rural poultry farmers The time and distance from collection to marketing is often long with traditional means of transportation. Spoilage and broken eggs are common Policy framework for Marketing of Livestock Products: 1. Farmers groups and cooperatives formation would be encouraged and supported for collective marketing of livestock products by community based organizations and associations; 2. Access to micro-finance and insurance schemes for poor smallholders including women would be improved; 3. Farmer’s information network for price data and processing of trade related information would be established with private sector support; 4. An Internet-based communication system would be established alongside regular broadcasting of trade related information and monitoring and forecasting of prices of livestock products; 5. Management Information Systems (MIS) would be established in the DLS on livestock product marketing; 6. Government if required will intervene the market to ensure minimum price of egg and meat for farmers; 7. Private sector would be encouraged to be involved in egg processing and other value added product manufacturing industries. 4. 8International Trade Management In order to derive the full benefits of globalization and trade liberalization, Bangladesh must further develop its export products to satisfy product standard requirements of importing countries and obtain up-to-date information from different markets. Bangladesh is signatory of the WTO (World Trade Organization) Agreement on Agriculture (AOA). The AOA provides a framework for the long-term reforms of agriculture trade and domestic policies to move forwards market orientation in agricultural trade. The obligations and disciplines incorporated in the AOA relate to four aspects, viz, i) agreement on market access; ii) agreement on domestic support; iii) agreement on export competition/subsidy; and iv) agreement on SPS (sanitary and phytosanitary) measures. Bangladesh is not fully able to meet the recommended safety and quality standards for livestock products consistent with the SPS guidelines as regulated by the World Animal Health Organization (OIE) and the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The main problem stem from: (i) inadequate veterinary services; (ii) lack of skilled human resources; (iii) lack of diagnostic facilities; (iv) lack of financial support; (v) lack of disease surveillance and monitoring of animal health; (vi) lack of updated food legislation; and (vii) need for an improved national food export inspection and certification program. Incidences of TADs (trans-boundary animal diseases), such as foot and mouth disease, are preventing Bangladesh from entering potential markets for livestock products. As the problem of TADs is being addressed on a larger scale, regional initiatives are becoming important and Bangladesh will seek the opportunity to enter into regional agreements to control TAOs. This will necessitate significant changes in the veterinary service system, particularly within diagnostic services and veterinary public health. Most export-oriented enterprises are small and medium size, with limited capacity to undertake market research, invest in technologies, and collect, store, and process trade information. Other important challenges relate to meeting labour and environmental standards, improving design and packaging, and accessing and using up-to-date information on consumer preferences and trends in global markets. Many enterprises have neither the in-house capacity to gather the necessary trade-related information nor the networks to access such information. Policy framework for International Trade Management: 1. Focal points would be set up in the OLS and the MoFL (Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock) to deal with the international and regional trade agreements and ensure implementation of notifications and obligations; 2. Training would be provided to the officials in the OLS, MoFL and livestock related industries to enable them to fully appreciate and deal effectively with international and regional trade agreements; 3. Requirements of trade related technical assistance for the DLS, MoFL and private exporters would be assessed and required assistance would be provided; 4. The capacity of DLS would be developed through institutional reform to address SPS and HACCP requirements; 5. An Internet-based communication system would be established to facilitate international market networking for livestock products; 6. MIS (management information systems) would be established in the OLS and MoFL for international trade management of livestock products; and 7. Private sector people would be included with all activities of international trade management. 4. 9Access to Credit and Insurance Credit The effective coverage of micro credit programs in Bangladesh was around II million households in 2002 of which around 80% were below poverty line. It is estimated that less than a fifth of the total micro credit disbursed by NGOs till June 200 I, was given to the livestock sub-sector mostly to poor women in rural areas. Financing of agricultural and other rural economic activities have not in the past attracted adequate interest of banks and institutional lenders. As recently as 2003 livestock attracted less than 5% of the total credit disbursed in the agricultural sector by state-owned lending institutions, although the trend in recent years has been sharply upwards. The livestock development has accelerated the demand for concentrate feeds, drugs, vaccines, and veterinary services. These trends are expected to continue in the coming years with resultant increases in demand for credit support. Expansion of livestock operations among poor smallholders and commercial livestock producers, as well as input suppliers (feed mills, drug producers, etc. ) and processors of livestock products is thus expected to increase the demand tor finance throughout the sub-sector, and will be needed to help facilitate continued horizontal and vertical integration. The following constraints and challenges in particular characterize the micro-credit sector: (i) insufficient funds; (ii) inappropriately packaged loans for production cycles of livestock; (iii) red tape and collateral requirements effectively reducing credit access for smallholders, notably the poor; (iv) inadequate loan supervision; (v) insufficient training in financial management and business planning (applies to both loan providers and takers); (vi) inadequate technical support; (vi) inappropriate interest rate policies and practices; (vii) conflicts of interest within NGOs providing both technical and credit support often to the detriment of the former; (viii) smallholder vulnerability and risk from natural and man-made disasters; and (ix) better servicing of the hard-core poor. Policy framework for Increasing Access to Credit: 1. Formation of CBOs (Community Based Organisations) linking them with DLS, NGOs, commercial banks, and insurance companies would be encouraged for delivery of appropriate livestock credit packages to the doorstep of small scale livestock farmers including poor women; 2. A Livestock Credit Fund would be established in the Bangladesh Bank for distribution of subsidized credit to small scale livestock farmers through CBOs; 3. Micro-finance packages better tailored to the production cycles of various livestock species would be promoted; 4. Micro-finance packages targeted towards and appropriate for the hard-core poor including women would be promoted; 5. Training would be provided to smallholder groups in livestock-related business planning and financial management; 6. Monitoring and supervision of micro finance institutions would be enhanced for adherence to international best practice; and 7. Provision of micro-finance services from technical services would be separated where necessary for clearer regulation. Insurance Livestock production is subject to the risks of animal disease, accident, and death. The result is often a serious decline in farm income and consequent failure on the pa11 of especially poorer farmers to maintain their livelihoods. Livestock insurance can: i) provide protection against loss of livestock from accident or disease, stabilizing income; ii) raise credit worthiness; iii) contribute to a reduction in the incidences of animal death and accident by requiring certification of a minimum standard of animal husbandry practices; and iv) encourage development of cattle breeding and dairy industries. Out of 62 insurance companies in Bangladesh, 60 are private companies of which none are involved in livestock insurance. Only a state owned insurance company, SBC (Sadharan Bima Corporation) has since 1980 been providing livestock insurance. It covers only projects financed by BKB (Bangladesh Krishi Bank) and other nationalized Commercial Banks. SBC insured 7. 567 dairy animals between 1981 and 2003, indicating only very negligible insurance coverage for livestock. No modifications of the SBC insurance program have been made since 1985 to address the changing scenarios in the dairy and poultry industries. There are at present none or only very few private sector companies with the skills or funds to initiate livestock insurance. There are no collaborative arrangements between insurance companies and public sector organizations to assist the companies in setting up insurance schemes. Milk Vita and CLDDP have developed a self-insurance scheme for their cooperative members and farmer groups/associations, which appears to be working well, Smallholders may not, however yet fully recognize and appreciate the implications and potential benefits of livestock insurance. Experience suggests that some level of subsidy for smallholder livestock enterprises may be necessary, at least during the initial period. Policy framework for Increasing Access to Livestock Insurance: 1. In consultation with insurance companies, CBOs and NGOs and other stakeholders, a strategy for expansion of livestock insurance coverage would be developed; 2. A Livestock Insurance Development Fund would be established in the Bangladesh Bank, 3. Self-insurance systems for poor smallholders including women through community-based livestock development programmes would be promoted; 4. A national database on livestock mortality, disease incidence and productivity of livestock would be developed and maintained at the DLS; 5. Awareness among smallholders on the benefits of livestock insurance schemes would be raised; and 6. Successful experiences of insurance models of other countries in the region would be studied and emulated. 4. 10Institutional Development for Research and Extension Livestock Research To carry out livestock research in the public sector BLRI (Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute) was established under a Presidential Ordinance in 1984 as a semi-autonomous body. It is organized into eight research divisions and an administrative division, called the support service division. The research divisions are: (i) Animal Production; (ii) Poultry Production; (iii) Animal Health; (iv) System Research; (v) Socio-economics; (vi) Goat and Sheep Production; (vii) Biotechnology; and (viii) Planning, Training and Technology Demonstration. The 1984 Ordinance was amended in 1996 as an Act in line with the amendment of the Act of the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC). The functions of BLRI are not sharply focused and its structure has a number of deficiencies. There are many important new issues that are not reflected in the functions. Dramatic changes that have taken place in recent years within Bangladesh and internationally (globalization and trade liberalization combined with WTO regulations and OIE requirements), which have changed both domestic and the international market scenarios. In the context of these changes, the functions of BLRI need to be sharpened. Major deficiencies exist in veterinary research, planning and management, human resource management, and information management. There is no Unit and staff to deal with planning, evaluation and monitoring. Veterinary research is done only on a limited scale under the Animal Health Division, There is no provision of a Director (Research), responsible for research planning, coordinating and monitoring the implementation of research projects; evaluating and reporting research outputs on a regular basis; and maintaining direct contact with DLS and sister research institutions, as well as liaison with other concerned Depal1ments. There is no management information system (MIS) for research at BLRI and Information management is generally weak. The shortage of operating funds for research is acute in BLRI. The annual allocation shows a declining trend in real terms. BLRI has been entirely depending on the development budget and contract research grants from BARC (also under development projects) for carrying out research. This has restricted BLRI in developing and undertaking meaningful research programs to support the poverty reduction program of the Government. BLRI has problems with training of its personnel. There is no provision for staff training or a built-in system of carrier progression within the research divisions like in the research institutes in the crop sector. This has created a high rate of attrition of qualified scientists. Policy framework for Livestock Research: 1. Research capacity of BLRI headquarters and its Regional Stations would be enhanced to address national priority and untapped potential regional livestock resources; 2. Private and NGO initiatives in livestock research would be encouraged and supported; 3. The mandate, functions and structure of BLRI would be sharpened including provision of a Director (Research), with a view to enhance the capacity to coordinate, maintain liaison with other concerned Departments; and conduct livestock research for pro-poor sustainable development; 4. Research capacity of BLRI would be extended to ensure safe production of animal products and by-products, animal protein supplement, feed additives, premixes, probiotics and mineral and vitamin supplements as inputs for poultry and livestock development; 5. The Act of BLRI would be amended to give greater autonomy to the Management Board and the Institute to bring it at a par with the crop research institutes; 6. Enabling environment should be created to develop quality manpower to undertake challenges for emerging livestock resource development in the context of global reformation; 7. Service structure and rules of business would be framed for BLRI to improve its management and to provide career development opportunities for talented scientists; 8. Research budget of BLRI would be increased to 40 per cent of its total annual budget. to meet the research operating costs. Livestock Extension For the extension of Livestock Services the Directorate of Livestock Services was established in 1960 and renamed as the Department of Livestock Services (DLS) in the late 1980s. Since 1960, the mandate and functions, structure, organization and management systems of DLS have remained almost unchanged. DLS is organized into five divisions, headed by their respective Directors: (i) Animal Health and Administration; (ii) Research, Training and Evaluation; (iii) Extension; (iv) Officers Training Institute; and (v) Production. The divisions are functionally split into sections to deal with different subject matters. Other entities of DLS include a LRI (Livestock Research Institute), a CDIL (Central Disease Investigation Laboratory), 7 FDIL (Field Disease Investigation Laboratories), a CVH (Central Veterinary Hospital), and 64 DVH (District Veterinary Hospitals). DLS has a number of training facilities such as the OTIs (Officers Training Institute) and VTI (Veterinary Training Institutes) and LTI (Livestock Training Institute), but remain grossly underutilized due to lack of funds. The structure of DLS offers insufficient focus on the issues that matter most. The functional Divisions are not structured in a logical fashion. Elements of veterinary services are scattered throughout different divisions/sections and function in an uncoordinated manner. The Veterinary Public Health Section exists but is neither equipped nor does it have the funds to deal adequately with disease surveillance and reporting, food safety and control of zoonotic diseases, and other public health issues. It has no linkages to the Health Department and the Public Health Institute. It also does not have a supporting legal framework to implement its mandate. Almost nothing is done on disease surveillance, including trans-boundary diseases. The major challenges facing DLS were identified as: (i) inappropriate mandate and functions; (ii) structural and organizational deficiencies; (iii) frontline services at the Upazila level is thin and weak; (iv) weak linkages with research organization including BLRI; (v) weak management system and MIS (management information system; (vi) slow recruitment and promotion system; (vii) shortage of skilled manpower; (viii) lack of regular skill development training; and (ix) limited budget allocation. In the context of increasing participation by the private sector and NGOs in livestock development, there is an urgent need to redefine the mandate and functions of DLS in a fashion that will allow it to gradually withdraw from private goods services, engage increasingly in delivery of public goods services viz. disease surveillance and reporting, food safety, enforcement of . laws and regulations, and quality control of feeds/drugs/vaccines/semen and breeding materials and facilitate private sector involvement. Policy framework for Livestock Extension: 1. Private sector, NGOs, and CBOs would be encouraged to provide private goods livestock services, viz. veterinary services, vaccination etc 2. DLS would be reformed to enhance its role as a provider of public goods services viz. regulatory measures, quality assurance and control, monitoring function, food safety function, disease surveillance, etc. ; 3. Livestock extension services frontline would be extended up to Union level in stages to make it available close to villages; 4. Resource allocations to DLS would be increased to make it effective in delivery of public goods services; 5. Autonomous unit/institute would be established for quality assurance and certification of livestock products, vaccines and biologics, and consumer’s rights protection; 6. Retraining program would be developed and implemented to equip DLS staffs with new knowledge and skills within the framework of a clearly defined human resource development action plan; 7. Besides staff training, DLS training institutes would be opened for all eligible candidates from private sector, NGOs and CBOs for livestock services extension training. 8. A special cell in all DVH would ensure round the clock service for emergency purpose. 9. DVH would further extend to TVH (Thana Veterinary Hospital) to ensure better service protection of the animal population, and 10. Extension-research-NGO linkage would be strengthened for field testing and dissemination of livestock technologies. 5. Implementation Strategy of the National Livestock Development Policy The implementation strategy would be to provide support that will specifically target factor productivity, investments and risks as follows: a. Public investment would be increased in livestock infrastructure to provide public goods and services delivery, and promoting private investment; b. Public investment would also be increased in livestock research for technological innovations to enhance productivity, income, employment; c. Market regulatory measures would be taken to shifts in relative prices of inputs and outputs to correct market distortions, rationalize the incentive structures for investment and mitigate negative impacts on environment; d. An appropriate legal and regulatory framework would be put in place; and e. Institutional reforms would be carried out and good sectoral governance would be put in place making both public and private sectors more transparent, accountable and mutually supportive. Policy framework for dairy development is: Cooperative dairy development (Milk Vita model) would be expanded in potential areas allover the country; †¢Successful pro-poor models for community-based smallholder dairy development including appropriate contact farming schemes would be replicated; †¢Smallholder dairy farming, integrated with crop and fish cul ture would be promoted; †¢Supply chain based production, processing and marketing of milk and milk products would be promoted; †¢A National Dairy Development Board would be established as a regulatory body to promote dairy development; †¢Ã¢â‚¬Å"National Dairy Research Institute† would be established to carryout research in various aspects of dairying. Policy framework for meat production: Animal Slaughter Act, Animal Feed Act and Animal Disease Act would be approved and enforced in order to promote hygienic production of quality meat; †¢Butchers would be trained on scientific methods of slaughtering, meat processing and preservation techniques; †¢Development of beef breeds for increased productivity at farm level; †¢Development of backward and forward linkage system to help improvement of existing cattle fattening system into private enterprises; †¢Private sector would be encouraged to establish mechanized slaughter houses with Static Flaying Frame in Divisional cities; and Local Government would be encouraged to establish slaughter slabs in municipality and Upazila headquarters; †¢Production of Black Bengal Goats would be promoted by ensuring disease prevention, availability of quality bucks and semen for artificial insemination, and knowledge transfer through special projects; †¢Buffalo and sheep farming would be developed in selected high potential areas through special projects. Policy framework or Poultry Development: †¢Successful pro-poor models would be replicated for semi-scavenging poultry development; †¢Formation of poultry smallholder groups, CBOs, and producers associations would be facilitated; †¢Quality control of poultry feeds and feed ingredients would be ensured through establishment of a legal body and enforcement of regulations; †¢Production and consumption of safe (antibiotic residue free) including organic meat and eggs would be promoted; †¢Criteria and guidelines would be established to ensure supply of quality day-old chicks; †¢Specific guidelines would be developed and enforced for stablishing environment-friendly commercial poultry farms; Small commercial farms would be converted into profit oriented large farms following cooperative system. †¢Poultry farms of the DLS would be utilized as breeding and multiplication farms / centres for smallholder training, technology testing and demonstration etc †¢Smallholder production and marketing of ducks and minor poultry species (e. g. Quail, Goose, Pigeon, Guinea fowl) in selected areas would be promoted; †¢National Reference Laboratory for detection of Avian Influenza virus and other emerging diseases would be established; and †¢National Avian Flu Preparedness Plan would be implemented. Policy framework for Veterinary Services and Animal Health: †¢Soft loans would be provided to accelerate the development of private veterinary services; †¢Community-based veterinary service would be developed through special projects; †¢An autonomous Quality Control Agency would be established to ensure quality of veterinary drugs, vaccines, feeds, feed ingredients and breeding tools and materials; †¢A licensing system for veterinary pharmacists and a quality monitoring system of veterinary services would be introduced; †¢Veterinary research would be strengthened in critical areas, particularly those related to provision of public goods and services; †¢Veterinary public health services would be strengthened and closer linkages with the Department of Health would be established; †¢Capacities of disease investigation network of DLS would be strengthened for disease surveillance, quarantine services and emergency planning to manage major disease outbre aks including Avian Influenza and other emerging diseases; †¢Specific strategy would be developed for controlling economically important trans-boundary animal diseases; †¢Veterinary Council would be strengthened to help ensure quality veterinary services; †¢Ã¢â‚¬Å"National Livestock Health Disaster Committee† would be formed including all trade organizations to combat such crisis; †¢A separate â€Å"Veterinary Cell† would be established in Department of Drug Administration for facilitating decision making on veterinary drug registration and approval in Bangladesh. Animal Health Companies Association and related trade association would be included in the committee to represent the private sector. †¢Promote and encourage private sector to set-up compliant veterinary diagnostic center, clinics and hospitals to cater the needs of the farmers and other beneficiaries. Policy framework for Feeds and Animal Management: Feed and fodder development strate gy would be developed for community- based fodder cultivation along roads and highways, rivers and embankments, in Khas lands, and in combinations with crops; †¢Necessary support would be provided to the private sector for utilization and promotion of crop residues, agro-industrial by-products and unconventional feed resources as animal feed; †¢An Animal Feed Act would be approved and implemented to ensure feed quality; and †¢ Resources would be provided for training of dairy farmers on improved animal management and husbandry practices. †¢Organizational support system development for coordination of support services for smallholder dairy development in private sector; †¢Private sector support system development for strengthening manufacturing and marketing of feed and feed additives; †¢Human resource development. Policy framework for Breeds Development: A National Breeding Program would be finalized and approved; †¢Conservation and utilization pro gram of potential indigenous breeds for poor smallholders in the pertinent locality would be developed; †¢A comprehensive human resource development program in animal breeding would be developed; †¢Frozen semen production unit would be established for wide scale artificial insemination of Black Bengal Goats to face the challenge of service storage of proven buck throughout the country; †¢Ã¢â‚¬ËœBreeders Association’ would be established for monitoring and coordination of livestock breeding activities in the country. Policy framework for Marketing of Livestock Products: Farmers groups and cooperatives formation would be encouraged and supported for collective marketing of livestock products by community based organizations and associations; †¢Access to micro-finance and insurance schemes for poor smallholders including women would be improved; †¢Farmer’s information network for price data and processing of trade related information would be esta blished with private sector support; †¢An Internet-based communication system would be established alongside regular broadcasting of trade related information and monitoring and forecasting of prices of livestock products; †¢Management Information Systems (MIS) would be established in the DLS on livestock product marketing; †¢Government if required will intervene the market to ensure minimum price of egg and meat for farmers; †¢Private sector would be encouraged to be involved in egg processing and other value added product manufacturing industries. Policy framework for Livestock Research: Research capacity of BLRI headquarters and its Regional Stations would be enhanced to address national priority and untapped potential regional livestock resources; †¢Private and NGO initiatives in livestock research would be encouraged and supported; †¢The mandate, functions and structure of BLRI would be sharpened including provision of a Director (Research), with a view to enhance the capacity to coordinate, maintain liaison with other concerned Departments; and conduct livestock research for pro-poor sustainable development; †¢Research capacity of BLRI would be extended to ensure safe production of animal products and by-products, animal protein supplement, feed additives, premixes, probiotics and mineral and vitamin supplements as inputs for poultry and livestock development; †¢The Act of BLRI would be amended to give greater autonomy to the Management Board and the Institute to bring it at a par with the crop research institutes; †¢Enabling environment should be created to develop quality manpower to undertake challenges for emerging livestock resource development in the context of global reformation; †¢Service structure and rules of business would be framed for BLRI to improve its management and to provide career development opportunities for talented scientists; †¢Research budget of BLRI would be increased to 40 per cent of its total annual budget. to meet the research operating costs. Policy framework for Livestock Extension: †¢Private sector, NGOs, and CBOs would be encouraged to provide private goods livestock services, viz. veterinary services, vaccination etc †¢DLS would be reformed to enhance its role as a provider of public goods services viz. regulatory measures, quality assurance and control, monitoring function, food safety function, disease surveillance, etc. ; †¢Livestock extension ervices frontline would be extended up to Union level in stages to make it available close to villages; †¢Resource allocations to DLS would be increased to make it effective in delivery of public goods services; †¢Autonomous unit/institute would be established for quality assurance and certification of livestock products, vaccines and biologics, and consumer’s rights protection; †¢Retraining program would be developed and implemented to equip DLS staffs with new kn owledge and skills within the framework of a clearly defined human resource development action plan; †¢Besides staff training, DLS training institutes would be opened for all eligible candidates from private sector, NGOs and CBOs for livestock services extension training. †¢A special cell in all DVH would ensure round the clock service for emergency purpose. †¢DVH would further extend to TVH (Thana Veterinary Hospital) to ensure better service protection of the animal population, and †¢Extension-research-NGO linkage would be strengthened for field testing and dissemination of livestock technologies. Implementation Strategy of the National Livestock Development Policy †¢The implementation strategy would be to provide support that will specifically target factor productivity, investments and risks as follows: †¢Public investment would be increased in livestock infrastructure to provide public goods and services delivery, and promoting private investment; †¢Public investment would also be increased in livestock research for technological innovations to enhance productivity, income, employment; †¢Market regulatory measures would be taken to shifts in relative prices of inputs and outputs to correct market distortions, rationalize the incentive structures for investment and mitigate negative impacts on environment; †¢An appropriate legal and regulatory framework would be put in place; and †¢Institutional reforms would be carried out and good sectoral governance would be put in place making both public and private sectors more transparent, accountable and mutually supportive. 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